Friday, January 30, 2009

Vagón texts of Umberto Eco, Roland Barthes and Todorov

From Internet to Gutenberg 1996
A lecture presented by Umberto Eco



The Italian Academy for Advanced Studies in America


November 12, 1996
According to Plato (in Phaedrus) when Hermes, the alleged inventor of writing, presented
his invention to the Pharaoh Thamus, he praised his new technique that was supposed to
allow human beings to remember what they would otherwise forget. But the Pharaoh was
not so satisfied. "My skillful Theut, he said, memory is a great gift that ought to be kept
alive by training it continuously. With your invention people will not be obliged any
longer to train memory. They will remember things not because of an internal effort, but
by mere virtue of an external device."
We can understand the preoccupation of the Pharaoh. Writing, as any other new
technological device, would have made torpid the human power which it substituted and
reinforced - just as cars made us less able to walk. Writing was dangerous because it
decreased the powers of mind by offering human beings a petrified soul, a caricature of
mind, a mineral memory.
Plato's text is ironical, naturally. Plato was writing his argument against writing. But he
was pretending that his discourse was told by Socrates, who did not write (since he did
not publish, he perished in the course of his academic fight.)
Nowadays, nobody shares these preoccupations, for two very simple reasons. First of
all, we know that books are not ways of making somebody else think in our place; on
the contrary they are machines that provoke further thoughts. Only after the invention
of writing was it possible to write such a masterpiece on spontaneous memory as Proust's
La Recherche du Temps Perdu.
Secondly, if once upon a time people needed to train their memory in order to remember
things, after the invention of writing they had also to train their memory in order to
remember books. Books challenge and improve memory; they do not narcotize it.
However, the Pharaoh was instantiating an eternal fear: the fear that a new technological
achievement could abolish or destroy something that we consider precious, fruitful,
something that represents for us a value in itself, and a deeply spiritual one.
It was as if the Pharaoh pointed first to the written surface and then to an ideal image
of human memory, saying: "This will kill that."








More than one thousand years later Victor Hugo in his Notre Dame de Paris, shows us a
priest, Claude Frollo, pointing his finger first to a book, then to the towers and to the
images of his beloved cathedral, and saying "ceci tuera cela", this will kill that. (The book
will kill the cathedral, alphabet will kill images).

The story of Notre Dame de Paris takes place in the XVth century, a little later than the
invention of printing. Before that, manuscripts were reserved to a restricted elite of literate
persons, but the only means to teach the masses about the stories of the Bible, the life of
Christ and of the Saints, the moral principles, even the deeds of the national history or the
most elementary notions of geography and natural sciences (the nature of unknown
peoples and the virtues of herbs or stones), was provided by the images of the cathedral.
A medieval cathedral was a sort of permanent and unchangeable TV program that was
supposed to tell people everything indispensable for their everyday lives as well as for
their eternal salvation. The book would have distracted people from their most important
values, encouraging unnecessary information, free interpretation of the Scriptures, insane
curiosity.
During the sixties, Marshall McLuhan wrote his The Gutenberg Galaxy, where he announced
that the linear way of thinking instaured by the invention of the press, was on the verge of being
substituted by a more global way of perceiving and understanding through the TV images or
other kinds of electronic devices. If not Mc Luhan, certainly many of his readers pointed their
finger first to a Manhattan Discotheque and then to a printed book by saying "this will kill that."

The media needed a certain time to accept the idea that our civilization was on the verge of
becoming an image oriented one - which would have involved a decline of literacy. Nowadays
this is a common shibboleth for every weekly magazine. What is curious is that the media started
to celebrate the decline of literacy and the overwhelming power of images just at the moment in
which, in the world scene, appeared the Computer.






Certainly a computer is an instrument by means of which one can produce and edit images,
certainly instructions are provided by means of icons; but it is equally certain that the computer
has become, first of all, an alphabetic instrument. On its screen there run words, lines, and in
order to use a computer you must be able to write and to read. The new computer generation is
trained to read at an incredible speed. An old-fashioned university professor is today incapable
of reading a computer screen at the same speed as a teen-ager. These same teen-agers, if by
chance they want to program their own home computer, must know, or learn, logical procedures
and algorithms, and must type words and numbers on a keyboard, at a great speed.
In this sense one can say that the computer made us to return to a Gutenberg Galaxy.
People who spend their night implementing an unending Internet conversation are principally
dealing with words. If the TV screen can be considered a sort of ideal window through which
one watches the whole world under the form of images, the computer screen is an ideal book
on which one reads about the world in form of words and pages.
The classical computer provided a linear sort of written communication. The screen was
displaying written lines. It was like a fast-reading book.
But now there are hypertexts. In a book one had to read from left to right (or right to left, or up
to down, according to different cultures) in a linear way. One could obviously skip through the
pages, one - once arrived at page 300 - could go back to check or re-read something at page 10 -
but this implied a labor, I mean, a physical labor. On the contrary a hypertext is a
multidimensional network in which every point or node can be potentially connected with any
other node.
Thus we have arrived at the final chapter of our this-will-kill-that story. It is more and more
stated that in the near future hypertextual Cd-roms will replace books.
With a hypertextual diskette books are supposed to become obsolete. If you even consider that
a hypertext is usually also multimedial, the complete hypertextual diskette will in the next future
replace not only books but also videocassettes and many other supports.
Now we must ask ourselves if such a perspective is a realistic one or is mere science-fiction -
as well as if the distinction we have just outlined between visual and alphabetic communication,
books and hypertexts is really that simple. Let me list a series of problems and possible perspectives for our future.
Even after the invention of printing books have never been the only instrument for acquiring
information. There were paintings, popular printed images, oral teaching, and so on. One can
say that books were in any case the most important instrument for transmitting scientifical
information, including news about historical events. In this sense they were the paramount
instrument used in schools.
With the diffusion of the various mass media, from cinema to television, something has changed.
Years ago the only way to learn a foreign language (outside of traveling abroad) was to study a
language from a book. Now our kids frequently know other languages by listening to records,
by watching movies in the original edition, by deciphering the instructions printed on a beverage
can. The same happens with geographical information. In my childhood I got the best of my
information about exotic countries not from textbooks but by reading adventure novels
(Jules Verne, for instance). My kids very early knew more than me on the same subjects from
watching TV and movies. One could learn very well the story of the Roman Empire through
movies, provided that movies were historically correct. The fault of Hollywood is not to have
opposed its movies to the books of Tacitus or of Gibbon, but rather to have imposed a pulp-
and romance-like version on both Tacitus and Gibbon.
A good educational tv program (not to speak of a CD-ROM) can explain genetics better than a
book.
Today the concept of literacy comprises many media. An enlightened policy of literacy must take
into account the possibilities of all of these media. Educational preoccupation must be extended
to the whole of media. Responsibilities and tasks must be carefully balanced. If for learning
languages, tapes are better than books, take care of cassettes. If a presentation of Chopin, with
commentary on compact disks, helps people to understand Chopin, don't worry if people do not
buy five volumes of the history of music.
Even if it were true that today visual communication overwhelms written communication, the
problem is not to oppose written to visual communication. The problem is how to improve both.
In the Middle Ages visual communication was, for the masses, more important than writing.
But Chartres Cathedral was not culturally inferior to the Imago Mundi of Honorius of Autun.
Cathedrals were the TV of those times, and the difference from our TV was that the directors of
the medieval TV --read: good books-- had a lot of imagination, and worked for the public profit
(or, at least, for what they believed to be public profit).
The real problems lay elsewhere. Visual communication has to be balanced with the verbal one,
and mainly with the written one for a precise reason. Once, a semiotician, Sol Worth, wrote a
paper, "Images cannot say Ain't". I can verbally say "Unicorns do not exist" but if I show the
image of a unicorn the unicorn is there. Moreover, is the unicorn I see a unicorn or the unicorn,
that is, does it stand for a given unicorn or for the unicorns in general?
This problem is not as immaterial as it can seem, and many many pages have been written by
logicians and semioticians on the difference between such expressions as a child, the child, this
child, all children, childhood as a general idea. Such distinctions are not so easy to display
through images. Nelson Goodman in his Languages of Art wondered if a picture representing a
woman



is the representation of Women in general, the portrait of a given woman, the example of the
general characteristics of a woman, the equivalent of the statement there is a woman looking at
me.
One can say that in a poster or on an illustrated book, the caption or other forms of written
material can help to understand what the image means. But I want to remind you about a
rhetorical device called example, on which Aristotle spent some interesting pages. In order to
convince somebody about a given matter, the most convincing is a proof by induction. In
induction I provide many cases and then I infer that probably they instantiate a general law.
Suppose I want to demonstrate that dogs are friendly and love their masters: I provided many
cases in which a dog has proved to be friendly and helpful and I suggest that there must be a
general law by which every animal belonging to the species of dogs is friendly.
Suppose now I want to persuade you that dogs are dangerous. I can do this by providing you
with an example: "Once, a dog killed its master...." As you easily understand, a single case does
not prove anything, but if the example is shocking I can surreptitiously suggest that dogs can
even be unfriendly, and once you are convinced that it can be so, I can unduly extrapolate a
law from a single case and conclude: "this means that dogs cannot be trusted." With the
rhetorical use of the example I shift from a dog to all dogs.
If you have a critical mind you can realize that I have manipulated a verbal expression (a dog
was bad) so to transform it into another one (all dogs are bad) which does not mean the same
thing. But if the example is a visual rather than a verbal one, the critical reaction is made more
difficult. If I show you the poignant image of a given dog biting its master it is very difficult to
discriminate between a particular and a general statement. It is easy to take that dog as the
representative of its species. Images have, so to speak, a sort of Platonic power: they transform
individuals into general ideas.
Thus by a purely visual communication and education it is easier to implement persuasive
strategies that reduce our critical power. If I read on a newspaper that a given man said "we
want mister X as president" I am aware that I was given the opinion of a given man. But if I
watch on the TV screen a man saying enthusiastically "we want mister X as president" it is
easier to take the will of that individual as the example of the general will.
Frequently I think that our societies will be split in a short time (or they are already split) into two
classes of citizens: those who only watch TV, who will receive pre-fabricated images and therefore
prefabricated definitions of the world, without any power to critically choose the kind of information
they receive, and those who know how to deal with the computer, who will be able to select and to
elaborate information. This will re-establish the cultural division which existed at the time of Claude
Frollo, between those who were able to read manuscripts, and therefore to critically deal with religious,
scientifical or philosophical matters, and those who were only educated by the images of the cathedral,
selected and produced by their masters, the literate few.
A science fiction writer could elaborate a lot on a future world where a majority of proletarians will
receive only visual communication planned by an élite of computer-literate people.
There are two sorts of books: these to be read and these to be consulted.
As far as books-to-read are concerned (they can be a novel, or a philosophical treatise, or a sociological
analysis, and so on) the normal way of reading them is the one that I would call the detective-like story.
You start from page 1, where the author tells you that a crime has been committed, you follow every
path of the detection until the end, and finally you discover that the guilty one was the butler. End of the
book and end of your reading experience. Remark that the same happens even if you read, let us say,
Descartes' Discourse de la methode. The author wanted you to open the book at its first page, to follow
the series of questions he proposed, to see how he reaches certain final conclusions. Certainly, a
scholar, who already knows that book, can re-read it by jumping from one page to another, trying to
isolate a possible link between a statement of the first chapter and one of the last one... A scholar can
also decide to isolate, let us say, every occurrence of the word Jerusalem in the immense opus of
Thomas Aquinas, thus skipping thousands of pages in order to focus his or her own attention on the
only passages dealing with Jerusalem... But these are ways of reading that the layman would consider
as unnatural.
Then there are the books to be consulted, like handbooks and encyclopedias. Sometimes handbooks
must be read from the beginning to the end; but when one knows the matter enough, one can consult
them, so selecting also certain chapters or passages. When I was in high-school I had to read entirely,
in a linear way, my handbook on mathematics; today, if I need a precise definition of logarithm, I only
consult it. I keep it on my shelves not to read and re-read it every day, but in order to keep it up once in
ten years, to find the item I need to consult it about.
Encyclopedias are conceived in order to be always consulted and never read from the first to the last
page. Usually one pick up a given volume of one's encyclopedia to know or to remember when
Napoleon died or what is the formula of sulfuric acid. Scholars use encyclopedias in a more
sophisticated way. For instance, if I want to know whether it was possible or not that Napoleon met
Kant, I have to pick up the volume K and the wolume N of my encyclopedia: I discover that Napolen
was born in 1769 and died in 1821, Kant was born in 1724 and died in 1804, when Napoleon was
already emperor. It is not impossible that the two met. I have probably to consult a biography of Kant,
or of Napoleon - but in a short biography of Napoleon, who met so many persons in his life, this
possible meeting with Kant can be disregarded, while a in a biography of Kant a meeting with Napoleon
should be recorded. In brief, I must leaf through many books in many shelves of my library, I must
take notes in order to compare later all the data I collected, and so on. In short, all this will cost to me a
painful physical labor.
With a hypertext, instead, I can navigate through the whole encyclopedia. I can connect an event
registered at the beginning with a series of similar events disseminated all along the text, I can compare
the beginning with the end, I can ask for the list of all the words beginning by A, I can ask for all the
cases in which the name of Napoleon is linked with the one of Kant, I can compare the dates of their
birth and death - in short, I can do my job in few seconds or few minutes.
Hypertexts will certainly render obsolete encyclopedias and handbooks. In few Cd-roms (probably
soon in a single one) it is possible to store more information than in the whole Encyclopedia Britannica,
with the advantage that it permits crossed references and non-linear retrieval of information. The whole
of the compact disks , plus the computer, will occupy one fifth of the space occupied by an
encyclopedia. The encyclopedia cannot be transported as the CD-ROM can, the encyclopedia cannot
be easily updated. The shelves today occupied, at my home as well as in public libraries, by meters and
meters of encyclopedia could be eliminated in the next future, and there will be no reasons to complain
for their disappearance.
Can a hypertextual disk replace the books to be read? This question conceals in fact two different
problems and could be rephrased as two different questions.
(I) First, a practical one: Can some electronic support replace the books-to-read?
(II) Second an theoretical and an esthetical one: Can a hypertextual and multimedial CD-ROM transform
the very nature of a book-to-read, such as a novel or a collection of poems?
Let me first answer the first question.
Books will remain indispensable not only for literature, but for any circumstance in which one needs to
read carefully, not only to receive information but also to speculate and to reflect about it. To read a
computer screen is not the same as to read a book. Think to the process of learning a new computer
program. Usually the program is able to display on the screen all the instructions you need. But usually
the users who want to learn the program either print the instructions and read them as if they were in
book form, or they buy a printed manual (let me underevaluate the fact that presently all the computer's
Helps are clearly written by irresponsible and tautological idiots, while commercial handbooks are
written by smart people). It is possible to conceive of a visual program that explains very well how to
print and bind a book, but in order to get instructions on how to write (or how to use) a computer
program, we need a printed handbook.
After having spent no more than 12 hours at a computer console, my eyes are like two tennis balls, and
I feel the need of sitting comfortably down in an armchair and reading a newspaper, and maybe a good
poem. I think that computers are diffusing a new form of literacy but are incapable of satisfying all the
intellectual needs they are stimulating.
In my hours of optimism I dream of a computer generation which, compelled to read a computer
screen, gets acquainted with reading, but at a certain moment feels unsatisfied and looks for a different,
more relaxed and differently-committing form of reading.
During a symposium on the future of books held at the university of San Marino (the proceedings are
now published by Brepols), Regis Debray has observed that the fact that Hebrew civilization was a
civilization based upon a Book is not independent on the fact that it was a nomadic civilization. I think
that this remark is very important. Egyptians could carve their records on stone obelisks, Moses could
not. If you want to cross the Red Sea, a scroll is a more practical instrument for recording wisdom. By
the way, another nomadic civilization, the Arabic one, was based upon a book, and privileged writing
over images.
But books also have an advantage in respect to computers. Even if printed in modern acid paper, which
lasts only 70 years or so, they are more durable than magnetic supports. Moreover, they do not suffer
of power shortage and black outs, and are more resistant to shocks. Up to now, books still represent
the more economical, flexible, wash-and-wear way to transport information at a very low cost.
Computers communication travels ahead of you, books travel with you and at your speed, but if you
shipwreck in a desert island, a book can serve you, while you don't have any chance to plug a computer
anywhere. And even though your computer has solar batteries you cannot easily read it while laying on
a hammock. Books are still the best companions for a shipwreck, or for the Day After.
For scholarly purposes a book-to-read can be transformed into a hypertextual CD-ROM. A scholar may
need to know, let us say, how many times the word good appears in the Paradise Lost.
However there are today new hypertextual poetics according to which even a book-to-read, even a
poem can be transformed into a hypertext. At this point we are shifting to question two, since the
problem is no more a practical one: it concern the very nature of the reading process.
Conceived in a hypertextual way even a detective story can be structured in a open way, so that its
readers can even select a given reading-path, that is, to build up their own personal story - even to
decide that the guilty one can and must be the detective instead of the butler.
Such an idea is not a new one. Before the invention of the computer, poets and narrators have dreamt
of a totally open text that the readers could infinitely re-write in different ways. Such was the idea of
Le Livre, as extolled by Mallarmé; Joyce thought of his Finnegans Wake as a text that could be read
by an ideal reader affected by an ideal insomnia. In the sixties Max Saporta wrote and published a
novel whose pages could be displaced so as to compose different stories. Nanni Balestrini gave one
of the early computers a disconnected list of verses that the machine put together in different ways so
to compose different poems; Raymond Queneau invented a combinatorial algorithm by virtue of which
it was possible to compose, from a finite set of lines, billions of poems. Many contemporary musicians
have produced musical movable scores, and by manipulating them one can compose different musical
performances.
As you have probably realized, even here one is dealing with two different problems. (I) The first is the
idea of a text which is physically movable. Such a text should give the impression of the absolute
freedom on the part of the reader; but this is only an impression, an illusion of freedom. The only
machinery that allows one to produce infinite texts already existed from millennia, and it is the alphabet.
With a reduced number of letters one can produce, really, billions of texts, and this is exactly what has
been done from Homer to the present days. A stimulus-text which provides us not with letters, or
words, but with pre-established sequences of words, or of pages, does not set us free to invent
anything we want. We are only free to move in a finite number of ways pre-established textual chunks.
But I, as a reader, do have this freedom even when I read a traditional detective novel. Nobody forbids
me from imagining a different end. Given a novel where two lovers die I, as a reader, can either cry on
their fate, or to try to imagine a different end in which they survive and live happy forever. In a way I,
as a reader, feel more free with a physically finite text, on which I can muse for years, than with a
movable one where only some manipulations are permitted.
(ii) This possibility leads us to the second problem which concerns a text which is physically finite
and limited but that can be interpreted in infinite, or at least in many ways. This has been in fact the
aim of every poet or narrator. But a text which can support many interpretations is not a text which
can support every interpretation.
I think that we are confronted with three different ideas of hypertext. First of all, we should make a
careful distinction between systems and texts. A system (for instance a linguistic system) is the whole
of the possibilities displayed by a given natural language. Every linguistic item can be interpreted in
terms of other linguistic or other semiotic items, a word by a definition, an event by an example, a
natural kind by an image, and so on and so forth. The system is perhaps finite but unlimited. You go
in a spiral-like movement ad infinitum. In this sense certainly all the conceivable books are comprised
by and within a good dictionary and a good grammar. If you are able to use the Webster you can write
both the Paradise Lost and Ulysses.
Certainly, if conceived in such a way, a hypertext can transform every reader into an author. Give the
same hypertextual system to Shakespeare and a schoolboy, and they have the same odds of producing
Romeo and Juliet.
However a text is not a linguistic or an encyclopedic system. A given text reduces the infinite or
indefinite possibilities of a system to make up a closed universe. Finnegans Wake is certainly open
to many interpretations, but it is sure that it will never provide you the demonstration of Fermat's
theorem, or the complete bibliography of Woody Allen. This seems trivial, but the radical mistake of
irresponsible deconstructionists was to believe that you can do everything you want with a text. This
is blatantly false. A textual hypertext is finite and limited, even though open to innumerable and original
inquiries. FIG.6
Hypertext can work very well with systems, they cannot work with texts. Systems are limited but
infinite. Texts are limited and finite, even they can allow for a high number of possible interpretations
(but they do not justify every possible interpretation).
There is however a third possibility. We may conceive of hypertexts which are unlimited and infinite.
Every user can add something, and you can implement a sort of jazz-like unending story. At this point
the classical notion of authorship certainly disappears, and we have a new way to implement free
creativity. Being the author of the Open Work I cannot but hail such a possibility. However there is a
difference between implementing the activity of producing texts and the existence of produced texts.
We shall have a new culture in which there will be a difference between producing infinite texts and
interpreting precise and finite texts. That is what happens in our present culture, in which we evaluate
differently a recorded performance of Beethoven's Fifth and a new instance of a New Orleans Jam Session.
We are marching towards a more liberated society in which free creativity will co-exist
with textual interpretation. I like this. But we must not say that we have substituted a old
thing with another one. We have both, thanks God. TV zapping is a kind of activity which
has nothing to do with watching a movie. A hypertextual device that allows us to invent
new texts has nothing to do with our ability to interpret pre-existing texts.
There is still another confusion between and about two different questions: (a) will
computers made books obsolete? and (b) will computers make written and printed
material obsolete?
Let us suppose that computers will make books to disappear. This would not mean the
disappearance of printed material.
The computer creates new modes of production and diffusion of printed documents. In
order to re-read a text, and to correct it properly, if it is not simply a short letter, one needs
to print it, then to re-read it, then to correct it at the computer and to reprint it again. I do
not think that one is able to write a text of hundreds of pages and to correct it without
printing it at least once.
We have seen that - if by chance one hoped that computers, and specially word processors,
would have contributed to save trees - that was a wishful thinking. Computers encourage
the production of printed material. We can think of a culture in which there will be no
books, and people will go around with tons and tons of unbound sheets of paper. This
will be pretty difficult, and will pose a new problem for libraries.
People desire to communicate with each other. In ancient communities they did it orally; in
a more complex society they tried to do it by printing. Most of the books which are
displayed in a bookstore should be defined as products of Vanity Presses, even if they are
published by a university press. But with computer technology we are entering a new
Samisdazt Era. People can communicate directly without the mediation of publishing
houses. Lot of people do not want to publish, they simply want to communicate each
other. Today they do it by E-mail or Internet, will result in being a great advantage for
books, books' civilization and books' market. Look at a bookstore. There are too many
books. I receive too many books every week. If the computer network will succeed in
reducing the quantity of published books, it would be a paramount cultural improvement.
One of the most common objections against the pseudo-literacy of computers is that young
people get more and more accustomed to speak through cryptic short formulas: dir, help,
diskcopy, error 67, and so on. One of the closing formulas used in the networks is cul8r.
Is that still literacy? FIG 7
I am a rare-books collector, and I feel delighted when I read the seventeenth-century titles
that took one page and sometimes more. They look like the titles of Lina Wertmuller's
movies. The introductions were several pages long. They started with elaborate courtesy
formulas praising the ideal Addressee, usually an Emperor or a Pope, and lasted for pages
and pages explaining in a very baroque style the purposes and the virtues of the text to
follow.
If Baroque writers read our contemporary scholarly books they would be horrified.
Introductions are one page long, briefly outline the subject matter of the book, thank some
National or International Endowment for a generous grant, shortly explain that the book
has been made possible by the love and understanding of a wife or husband and of some
children, and credit a secretary for having patiently typed the manuscript. We understand
perfectly the whole of human and academic ordeals revealed by those few lines, the
hundreds of nights spent underlining photocopies, the innumerable frozen hamburgers
eaten in a hurry..
But let me guess that in the near future we will have three lines saying: "W/c, Smith,
Rockefeller," (to be read as: I thank my wife and my children; this book was patiently
revised by Professor Smith, and was made possible by the Rockefeller Foundation.")
FIGURE 8
That would be as eloquent as a Baroque introduction. It is a problem of rhetoric and of
acquaintance with a given rhetoric. I think that in the coming years passionate love
messages will be sent in the form of a short instruction in Basic language, under the form
"if... then", so to obtain, as an input, messages like "I love you, therefore I cannot live
with you," (beautiful verse from Emily Dickinson).
Besides, the best of English mannerist literature was listed --as far as I remember-- in some
program language: 2B OR/NOT 2B " FIGURE 9
There is a curious idea according to which the more you say in verbal language, the more
you are profound and perceptive. Mallarmé told us that it is sufficient to spell out "une
fleur" to evoke a universe of perfumes, shapes, and thoughts. Frequently for poetry, the
fewer the words, the more the things. Three lines of Pascal say more than 300 pages of a
long and boring treatise on morals and metaphysics. The quest for a new and surviving
literacy ought not to be the quest for a pre-informatic quantity. The enemies of literacy are
hiding elsewhere.
Until now I have tried to show that the arrival of new technological devices does not
necessarily made previous device obsolete. The car is goes faster than the bicycle, but cars
have not rendered bicycles obsolete and no new technological improvement can make a
bicycle better than it was before. The idea that a new technology abolishes a previous role
is too much simplistic. After the invention of Daguerre painters did not feel obliged to
serve any longer as craftsmen obliged to reproduce reality such as we believe to see it. But
it does not mean that Daguerre's invention only encouraged abstract painting. There is a
whole tradition in modern painting that could not exist without the photographic model,
think for instance of hyper-realism. Reality is seen by the painter's eye through the
photographic eye.
Certainly the advent of cinema or of comic strips has made literature free from certain
narrative tasks it traditionally had to perform. But if there is something like post-modern
literature, it exists just because it has been largely influenced by comic strips or cinema.
For the same reason today I do not need any longer a heavy portrait painted by a modest
artist and I can send my sweetheart a glossy and faithful photograph, but such a change
in the social functions of painting has not made painting obsolete, except that today painted
portraits do not fulfill the same practical function of portraying a person (which can be
done better and less expensively by a photograph), but of celebrating important
personalities, so that the command, the purchasing and the exhibition of such portraits
acquire aristocratic connotations.
This means that in the history if culture it has never happened that something has simply
killed something else. Something has profoundly changed something else.
I have quoted McLuhan, according to which the Visual Galaxy had substituted the
Gutenberg Galaxy. We have seen that few decades later this was no longer true.
McLuhan stated that we are living in a new electronic Global Village. We are certainly
living in a new electronic community, which is global enough, but this is not a Village -
if by village one means a human settlement where people are directly interacting each other.
The real problems of an electronic community are the following: (1) Solitude. The new
citizen of this new community is free to invent new texts, to cancel the traditional notion
of authorship, to delete the traditional divisions between author and reader, but the risk is
that - being in touch with the entire world by means of a galactic network - one feels
alone.... (2) Excess of information and inability to choose and to discriminate. I am used
to saying that certainly the Sunday NYT is the kind of newspaper where you can find
everything fit to print. Its 500 hundred pages tell you everything you need to know about
the events of the past week and the ideas for the new one. However, a single week is not
enough to read the whole Sunday NYT. Is there a difference between a newspaper which
says everything you cannot read, and a newspaper which says nothing, is there a difference
between NYT and Pravda?
Notwithstanding this, the NYT reader can still distinguish between the book review, the
pages devoted to the tv programs, the Real Estate supplement, and so on. The user of
Internet has not the same skill. We are today unable to discriminate, at least at first glance,
between a reliable source and a mad one. We need a new form of critical competence, an
as yet unknown art of selection and decimation of information, in short, a new wisdom.
We need a new kind of educational training.
Let me say that in this perspective books will still have a paramount function. As well as
you need a printed handbook in order to surf on Internet, so we will need new printed
manuals in order to cope critically with the World Wide Web.
Let me conclude with a praise of the finite and limited world that books provide us.
Suppose you are reading Tolstoj's War and Peace: you are desperately wishing that
Natasha will not accept the courtship of that miserable scoundrel who is Anatolij; you
desperately wish that that marvellous person who is prince Andrej will not die, and that
he and Natasha could live together happy forever. If you had War and Peace in a
hypertextual and interactive CD-rom you could rewrite your own story, according to
your desires, you could invent innumerable War and Peaces, where Pierre Besuchov
succeeds in killing Napoleon or, according to your penchants, Napoleon definitely defeats
General Kutusov.
Alas, with a book you cannot. You are obliged to accept the laws of Fate, and to realise
that you cannot change Destiny. A hypertextual and interactive novel allows us to practice
freedom and creativity, and I hope that such a kind of inventive activity will be practised
in the schools of the future. But the written War and Peace does not confront us with the
unlimited possibilities of Freedom, but with the severe law of Necessity. In order to be
free persons we also need to learn this lesson about Life and Death, and only books can
still provide us with such a wisdom.
Source: http://www.hf.ntnu.no/anv/Finnbo/tekster/Eco/Internet.htm



Fragmentos de un discurso amoroso por Roland Barthes




Traducción de Eduardo Molina
Espero una llegada, una reciprocidad, un signo prometido. Puede ser fútil o enormemente patético. Todo es solemne: no tengo sentido de las proporciones.Hay una escenografía de la espera: la organizo, la manipulo, destaco un trozo de tiempo en que voy a imitar la pérdida del objeto amado y provocar todos los afectos de un pequeño duelo, lo cual se representa, por lo tanto, como una pieza del teatro.La espera es un encantamiento: recibí la orden de no moverme. La espera de una llamada telefónica se teje así de interdicciones minúsculas, al infinito, hasta lo inconfesable: me privo de salir de la pieza, de ir al lavabo, de hablar por teléfono incluso; sufro si me telefonean; me enloquece pensar que a tal hora cercana será necesario que yo salga, arriesgándome así a perder el llamado. Todas estas diversiones que me solicitan serían momentos perdidos para la espera, impurezas de la angustia. Puesto que la angustia de la espera, en su pureza, quiere que yo me quede sentado en un sillón al alcance del teléfono, sin hacer nada.El ser que espero no es real. El otro viene allí donde yo lo espero, allí donde yo lo he creado ya. Y si no viene lo alucino: la espera es un delirio.

***
Como Relato (Romance, Pasión), el amor es una historia que se cumple, en el sentido sagrado: es un programa que debe ser recorrido. Para mí, por el contrario, esta historia ya ha tenido lugar; porque lo que es acontecimiento es el arrebato del que he sido objeto y del que ensayo (y yerro) el después. El enamoramiento es un drama, si devolvemos a esta palabra el sentido arcaico que le dio Nietzsche: "El drama antiguo tenía grandes escenas declamatorias, lo que excluía la acción". El rapto amoroso (puro momento hipnótico) se produce antes del discurso y tras el proscenio de la conciencia: el "acontecimiento" amoroso es de orden hierático: es mi propia leyenda local, mi pequeña historia sagrada lo que yo me declamo a mí mismo, y esta declamación de un hecho consumado (coagulado, embalsamado, retirado del hacer pleno) es el discurso amoroso.

***
Humboldt llama a la libertad del signo locuacidad. Soy (interiormente) locuaz, porque no puedo anclar mi discurso: los signos giran "en piñón libre". Si pudiera forzar el signo, someterlo a una sanción, podría finalmente encontrar descanso. Pero no puedo impedirme pensar, hablar; ningún director de escena está ahí para interrumpir el cine interior que me paso a mí mismo y decirme: ¡Corte! La locuacidad sería una especie de desdicha propiamente humana: estoy loco de lenguaje: nadie me escucha, nadie me mira, pero continuo hablando, girando mi manivela.

***
Para poder interrogar al destino es necesaria una pregunta alternativa (Me quiere / No me quiere), un objeto susceptible de una variación simple (Caerá / No caerá) y una fuerza exterior (divinidad, azar, viento) que marque uno de los polos de la variación. Planteo siempre la misma pregunta (¿seré amado?), y esta pregunta es alternativa: todo o nada; no concibe que las cosas maduren, que sean sustraídas a la oportunidad del deseo. No soy dialéctico. La dialéctica diría: la hoja no caerá, y después cae; pero entretanto habrás cambiado y no te plantearás ya la pregunta.

***
Para mostrarte dónde está tu deseo basta prohibírtelo un poco. X... desea que esté allí, a su lado, pero dejándolo un poco libre: ligero, ausentándome a veces, pero quedándome no lejos: es preciso, por un lado, que esté presente como prohibido, pero también que me aleje en el momento en que, estando en formación ese deseo, amenazaría con obstruirlo. Tal sería la estructura de la pareja "realizada": un poco de prohibición, mucho de juego; señalar el deseo y después dejarlo.

***
Desacreditada por la opinión moderna, la sentimentalidad del amor debe ser asumida por el sujeto amoroso como una fuerte transgresión, que lo deja solo y expuesto; por una inversión de valores, es pues esta sentimentalidad lo que constituye hoy lo obsceno del amor.(Tomaré para mí el desprecio con el que se abruma todo pathos: en otro tiempo, en nombre de la razón, hoy, en nombre de la "modernidad", que requiere un sujeto, con tal que sea "generalizado".)Dí con un intelectual enamorado: para él, "asumir" (no reprimir) la extrema tontería, la tontería desnuda de su discurso, es la forma necesaria de lo imposible y de lo soberano: una abyección tal que ningún discurso de la transgresión puede recuperarla y que se expone sin protección al moralismo de la antimoral. De ahí que juzgue a sus contemporáneos modernos como otros tantos inocentes: lo son los que censuran la sentimentalidad amorosa en nombre de una nueva moral (Nietzche): "El sello distintivo de las almas modernas no es la mentira sino la inocencia, encarnada en el moralismo falso" . (Inversión histórica: no es ya lo sexual lo que es indecente; es lo sentimental -censurado en nombre de lo que no es, en el fondo, más que otra moral.)El enamorado delira ("desplaza el sentimiento de los valores"), pero su delirio es tonto. El daimon de Sócrates le soplaba: no. Mi daimon es por el contrario mi tonteria: como el asno nietzscheano digo sí a todo, en el campo del amor. Me obstino, rechazo el aprendizaje, repito la misma conducta; no se me puede educar - y yo mismo no lo puedo hacer; mi discurso es continuamente irreflexivo; no sé ordenarlo, graduarlo, disponer de enfoques, las comillas; hablo siempre en primer grado; me mantengo en un delirio prudente, ajustado, discreto, domesticado, trivializado por la literatura.Todo lo que es anacrónico es obsceno. Como divinidad (moderna), la Historia es represiva, la Historia nos prohíbe ser inactuales. Del pasado no soportamos más que la ruina, el monumento, el kitsch o el retro, que es divertido; reducimos ese pasado a su sola rúbrica. El sentimiento amoroso está pasado de moda (demodé), pero ese demodé no puede siquiera ser recuperado como espectáculo: el amor cae fuera del tiempo interesante; ningún sentido histórico, polémico, puede serle conferido; es en esto que es obsceno.En la vida amorosa, la trama de los incidentes es de una increíble futilidad, y esta futilidad, unida a la mayor formalidad, es sin duda inconveniente. Cuando imagino seriamente suicidarme por una llamada telefónica que no llega, se produce una obscenidd tan grande como cuando, en Sado, el papa sodomiza a un pavo. Pero la obscenidad sentimental es menos extraña, y eso es lo que la hace más abyecta; nada puede superar el inconveniente de un sujeto que se hunde porque su otro adopta un aire ausente.La carga moral decidida por la sociedad para todas las transgresiones golpea todavía más hoy la pasión que el sexo. Todo el mundo comprenderá que X... tenga "enormes problemas" con su sexualidad; pero nadie se interesará en los que Y... pueda tener con su sentimentalidad: el amor es obsceno en que precisamente pone lo sentimental en el lugar de lo sexual.La obscenidad amorosa es extrema: nada puede concentrarla, darle el valor fuerte de una transgresión; la soledad del sujeto es tímida, carente de todo decoro: ninbún Bataille le dará una escritura a ese obsceno. El texto amoroso está hecho de pequeños narcisismos, de mezquindades psicológicas; carece de grandeza: o su grandeza es la de no poder alcanzar ninguna grandeza. Es pues, el momento imposible en que lo obsceno puede verdaderamente coincidir con la afirmación, el amén, el límite grado de lo obsceno.

***
La catástrofe amorosa está quizás próxima de lo que se ha llamado, en el campo psicótico, una situación extrema, que es "una situación vivida por el sujeto como algo que debe destruirlo irremediablemente"; la imagen surge de lo que pasó en Dachau. ¿No es indecente comparar la situación de un sujeto con mal de amores a la de un recluso de Dachau? Estas dos situaciones tienen, sin embargo, algo de común: son, literalmente pánicas: son situaciones sin remanente, sin retorno: me he proyectado en el otro con tal fuerza que, cuando me falta, no puedo recuperarme: estoy perdido, para siempre.
***
Desde hace cien años se considera que la locura (literaria) consiste en esto: "Yo es otro": la locura es una experiencia de despersonalización. Para mí, sujeto amoroso, es todo lo contrario: es a causa de convertirme en sujeto, de no poder sustraerme a serlo, que me vuelvo loco. Yo no soy otro: es lo que compruebo con pavor. (Cuento zen: un viejo monje está ocupado a pleno sol en desecar hongos: "¿Por qué no hace que lo hagan otros? -Otro no es yo, y yo no soy otro. Otro no puede hacer la experiencia de mi acción. Yo debo hacer la experiencia de descar los hongos.")Soy indefectiblemente yo mismo y es en esto en lo que radica mi estar loco: estoy loco puesto que consisto.Es loco aquel que está limpio de todo poder. -¿Cómo? ¿Acaso el enamorado no conoce ninguna excitación de poder? El sometimiento es no obstante asunto mío: sometido, queriendo someter, experimento a mi manera la ambición de poder, la libido dominandi. Sin embargo, ahí está mi singularidad; mi libido está absolutamente encerrada: no habito ningún otro espacio que el duelo amoroso: ni un ápice de exterior, y por lo tanto ni un ápice de sentido gregario: estoy loco: no porque sea orginial sino porque estoy separado de toda socialidad. Si los demás hombres son siempre, en grados diversos militantes de algo, yo no soy soldado de nada, ni siquiera de mi propia locura: yo no socializo.

***
La ausencia amorosa va solamente en un sentido y no puede suponerse sino a partir de quien se queda -y no de quien parte-: yo, siempre presente, no se constituye más que ante tú, siempre ausente. A veces ocurre que soporto bien la ausencia. Estoy entonces "normal": me ajusto a la manera en que "todo el mundo" soporta la partida de una "persona querida"; obedezco con eficacia al adiestramiento por el cual se me ha dado muy temprano el hábito de estar separado de mi madre. Actúo como un sujeto bien destetado; sé alimentarme, mientras espero. Si se soporta bien esta ausencia, no es más que el olvido. Soy irregularmente infiel. Es la condición de mi supervivencia; si no olvidara, moriría. El enamorado que no olvida a veces, muere por exceso, fatiga y tensión de memorias.Muy pronto desperté de este olvido. Apresuradamente, puse en su lugar una memoria, un desasosiego. En la ausencia amorosa, soy, tristemente, una imagen desapegada que se seca, se amarillea, se encoge.¿El deseo no es siempre el mismo, esté presente o ausente el objeto? ¿El objeto no está siempre ausente? No es la misma languidez: hay dos palabras: Pothos, para el deseo del ser ausente, e Himeros, más palpitante, para el deso del ser presente.Dirijo sin cesar al ausente el discurso de su ausencia; situación en suma inaudita; el otro está ausente como referente, presente como alocutor. De esta distosión singular, nace una suerte de rpesente insostenible; estoy atrapado entre dos tiempos, el tiempo de la referencia y el tiempo de la alocución: has partido (de ello me quejo), estás ahí (puesto que me dirijo a tí). Sé entonces lo que es el presente, ese tiempo difícil: un mero fragmento de angustia.La ausencia dura, me es necesario soportarla. Voy pues a manipularla: transformar la distorsión del tiempo en vaivén, producir ritmo, abrir la escena del lenguaje. La ausencia se convierte en una práctica activa, en un ajetreo (que me impide hacer cualquier otra cosa); en él se crea una ficción de múltiples funciones (dudas, reproches, deseos, melancolías). Esta escenificación lingüística aleja la muerte del otro: un momento muy breve, digamos, separa el tiempo en que el niño cree todavía a su madre ausente y aquél en que la cree ya muerta. Manipular la ausencia es aplazar este momento, retardar tanto tiempo como sea posible el instante en que el otro podría caer descarnadamente de la ausencia a la muerte.

***

Mis angustias de conducta son fútiles, incesantemente cada vez más fútiles, al infinito. Es fútil lo que aparentemente no tiene, no tendrá, consecuencias. Pero para mí, sujeto amoroso, todo lo que es nuevo, lo que altera, no se recibe como si fuera un hecho sino como si fuera un signo que es necesario interpretar. Desde el punto de vista amoroso, es el signo, no el hecho, el que es consecuente (por su resonancia). Todo significa: mediante esta proposición yo me fraguo, me alto en el cálculo, me impido gozar.

***
Contingencias. Pequeños acontecimientos, incidentes, reveses, fruslerías, mezquindades, futilidades, pliegues de la existencia amorosa; todo nudo factual cuya resonancia llega a atravesar las miras de la felicidad del sujeto amoroso, como si el azar intrigase contra él.El incidente es fútil (siempre es fútil) pero va a atraer hacia sí todo mi lenguaje. Lo transformo enseguida en acontecimiento importante, pensado por algo que se parece al destino. Es una capa que cae sobre mí arrastrándolo todo. Cicunstancias innumerables y tenues tejen así el velo negro de la Maya; el tapiz de las ilusiones, de los sentidos, de las palabras.Como un pensamiento diurno enviado a un sueño, será el incidente el empresario del discurso amoroso, que va a fructificar gracias al capital de lo Imaginario.En el incidente no es la causa lo que me retiene y repercute en mí, es la estructura. No recrimino, no sospecho, no busco las causas; veo con pavor la extensión de la situación en la que estoy preso; no soy el hombre del resentimiento, sino el de la fatalidad.El incidente es para mí un signo, no un indicio: el elemento de un sistema, no la eflorescencia de una causalidad.

***
El lenguaje es una piel. Yo froto mi lenguaje contra el otro. Mi lenguaje tiembla de deseo. La emoción proviene de un doble contacto: por una parte, toda una actividad discursiva viene a realzar discretametne, indirectamente, un significado único, que es "yo te deseo", y lo libera, lo alimenta, lo ramifica, lo hace estallar (el lenguaje goza tocándose a sí mismo); por otra parte, envuelvo al otro en mis palabras, lo acaricio, lo mimo, converso acerca de estos mimos, me desvivo por hacer durar el comentario al que someto la relación.(Hablar amorosametne es desvivirse sin término, sin crisis; es practicar una relación sin orgasmo. Existe tal voz una forma literaria de este coitus reservatus: el galanteo) La pulsión del comentario se desplaza, sigue la vía de las sustituciones. En principio, discurro sobre la relación para el otro; pero también puede ser ante el confidente: de tú paso a él. Y después, de él paso a uno: elaboro un discurso abstracto sobre al amor, una filosofía de la cosa, que no sería pues, en suma, mas que una palabrería generalizada. Retomando desde allí el camino inverso, se podrá decir que todo propósito que tiene por objeto al amor implica fatalmente una alocución secreta.

***
El ser amado es reconocido por el sujeto amoroso como "átopos", es decir como inclasificable, de una originalidad imprevisible. Es átopos el otro que amo y que me fascina. No puedo clasificarlo puesto que es precisamente el Único, la Imagen singular que ha venido milagrosamente a responder a la especificidad de mi deseo. Es la figura de mi verdad.Frente a la originalidad brillante del otro no me siento jamás átopos, sino mas bien clasificado (como un expediente conocido). A veces, sin embargo, llego a suspender el juego de la imágenes desiguales ("¡Que no pueda yo ser tan original, tan fuerte como el otro!"); intuyo que el verdadero lugar de la originalidad no es ni el otro ni yo, sino nuestra propia relación. Es la originaliad de la relación lo que es preciso reconquistar. La mayor parte de las heridas provienen del estereotipo: estoy obligado a hacerme el enamorado, como todo el mundo: a estar celoso, abandonado, frustrado, como todo el mundo. Pero cuando la relación es original, el estereotipo es conmovido, rebasado, eliminado, y los celos, por ejemplo, no tienen ya espacio en esa relación sin lugar, sin topos, sin "plano" -sin discurso.

***
La verdad es que -paradoja desorbitante- no ceso de creer que soy amado. Alucino lo que deseo. Cada herida viene menos de unda duda que de una traición: porque no puede traicionar sino quien ama, no puede estar celoso sino quien cree ser amado: el otro, episódicamente, falta a su ser, que es el de amarme; he aquí el origen de mis desgracias. Un delirio, sin embargo, sólo existe si despertamos de él (no hay sino delirios retrospectivos): un dia comprendo lo que me ha ocurrido: creía sufrir por no ser amado y sin embargo sufría porque creía serlo; vivía en la complicación de ceerme a la vez amado y abandonado. Cualquiera que hubiese entendido mi lenguaje íntimo no habría podido menos que exclamar: pero en fin, ¿qué quiere?

***
Es propio de la situación amorosa ser inmediatamente intolerable una vez que la fascinación del encuentro ha pasado. Un demonio niega el tiempo, la maduración, la dialéctica y dice a cada instante: ¡esto no puede durar! Sin embargo dura, al menos mucho tiempo. La paciencia amorosa tiene pues por punto de partida su propia negación: no procede ni de una espera, ni de un domino, ni de un ardid, ni de una temeridad: es una desgracia que no se usa, en proporción a su agudeza; una sucesión de sacudidas, la repetición (¿cómica?) del gesto por el cual yo me manifiesto que he decidido poner fin a la repetición; la paciencia de una impaciencia. (Sentimiento razonable: todo se arregla -pero nada dura. Sentimiento amoroso: nada se arregla -y sin embargo dura)Comprobar lo Insoportable: ese grito tiene su beneficio: manifestándome a mí mismo que es preceiso salir de él, por cualquier medio que sea, instalo en mí el teatro marcial de la Decisión, de la Acción, de la Salida. La exaltación es como una ganancia secundaria de mi impaciencia; me nutro de ella, me revuelco en ella. Siempre "artista", hago de la forma misma un contenido. Imaginando una solución dolorosa (renunciar, partir, etc.), hago retumbar en mí el fantasma exaltado de la salida; una gloria de abnegación me invade y olvido enseguida lo que debería entonces sacrificar: nada menos que mi locura -que, por definición, no puede constituirse en objeto de sacrificio: ¿se ha visto a un loco "sacrificando" su locura a alguien?Cuando la exaltación ha decaído quedo reducido a la filosofía más simple: la de la resistencia (dimensión natural de las fatigas verdaderas). Sufro sin adaptarme, persisto sin curtirme: siempre perdido, nunca desalentado.

***
El discurso amoroso asfixia al otro, que no encuentra ningún lugar para su propia palabra bajo ese decir masivo. No es que yo le impida hablar; pero sé insinuar los pronombres: "Yo hablo y tú entiendes, luego existimos" (Ponge). A veces, con terror, tomo conciencia de ese vuelco: yo, que me creía puro sujeto (sujeto sujetado: frágil, delicado, lastimero), me veo convertido en una cosa obtusa, que anda a ciegas, que aplasta a todo bajo su discurso; yo, que amo, soy indeseable, alienado hasta las filas de los fastidiosos: los que son pesados, molestan, se inmiscuyen, complican, reclaman, intimidan (o más simplemente: los que hablan). Me he equivocado monumentalmente.

***
Idea de suicidio; idea de separación; idea de retiro; idea de viaje; idea de oblación, etc; puedo imaginar muchas soluciones a la crisis amorosa y no ceso de hacerlo. Sin embargo, por más enajenado que esté, no me es difícil aprehender, a través de esas ideas recurrentes, una figura única, vacía, que es solamente la de la salida; aquello con lo que vivo, con complacencia, es el fantasma de otro papel: el papel de alquien que "se las arregla". Así se descubre, una vez más, la naturaleza lingual del sentimiento amoroso: toda solución es implacablemente remitida a su sola idea -es decir a un ser verbal-; ajustarse a la preclusión de toda salidad: el discurso amoroso es en cierta forma un a puertas cerradas de las salidas.La Idea es siempre una escena patética que imagino y de la que me conmuevo; en suma, un teatro. Imaginando una solución extrema (es decir, definitiva, definida), produzco una ficción, me convierto en artista, hago un cuadro, pinto mi salida; la Ida se ve, como el momento fecundo del drama burgués:es tan pronto una escena de adiós como una carta solemne, o bien, mucho más tarde, una despedida plena de dignidad. El arte de la catástrofe me apacigua.Todas las soluciones que imagino son interiores al sistema amoroso: retiro, viaje, suicidio, es siempre el enamorado quien se enclaustra, se va o muerte; si se ve encerrado, ido o muerto, lo que ve es siempre un enamorado: me ordeno a mí mismo estar siempre enamorado y no estarlo más. Esta suerte de identidad del problema y de su solución define precisamente la trampa: estoy entrampado proque está fuera de mi alcance cambiar de sistema y puesto que no puedo sustituirlo por otro. Para "arreglármelas" sería necesario que yo salga del sistema -del que debo salir. Si no fuera propio de la "naturaleza" del delirio amoroso pasar, decaer solo, nadie podría ponerle fin.

***
Hay dos afirmaciones del amor. En primer lugar, cuando el enamorado encuentra al otro, hay afirmación inmediata (psicológicamente: deslumbramiento, entusiasmo, exaltación, proyección loca de un futuro pleno: soy devorado por el deseo, por el impulso de ser feliz): digo sí a todo (cegándome). Sigue un largo túnel: mi primer sí está carcomido de dudas, el valor amoroso es incesantemente amenzado de depreciación: es el momento de la pasión triste, la ascensión del resentimiento y de la oblación. De este túnel, sin embargo, puedo salir; puedo "superar", sin liquidar; lo que afirmé una primera vez puedo afirmarlo de nuevo sin repetirlo, puesto que entonces lo que yo afirmo es la afirmación, no su contingencia: afirmo el primer encuentro en su diferencia, quiero su regreso, no su repetición. Digo al otro (viejo o nuevo): Recomencemos.

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Estrechez de espíritu: en realidad no admito nada del otro, no comprendo nada. Todo lo que, del otro, no me concierne, me parece extraño, hostil; experimento entonces respecto de él una mezcla de pavor y de severidad: temo y repruebo al ser amado, desde el momento en que ya no "pega" con su imagen. Soy solamente "liberal": un dogmático doliente, en cierta manera.(Industriosa, infatigablel, la máquina de lenguaje resuena en mí -puesto que marcha bien- fabrica su cadena de adjetivos: cubro al otro de adjetivos, desgrano sus cualidades, su qualitas.) A través de esos juicios variables, versátiles, subsiste una impresión penosa: veo que el otro persevera en sí mismo: es él mismo esta perseverancia con la que tropiezo. Me enloquezco al comprobar que no puedo desplazarla; haga lo que haga, por más que me prodigue para él, no renuncia nunca a su propio sistema. Experimento contradictoriamente al otro como una divinidad caprichosa, y como una cosa inveterada. O también, veo al otro en sus límites. O, en fin, me interrogo ¿hay un punto, uno solo, sobre el cual el otro podría sorprenderme? Así, curiosamente, la "libertad" del otro de "ser él mismo" la experimento como una obstinación pusilánime.Veo bien al otro como tal -veo el tal del otro-, pero en el campo del sentimiento amoroso, ese tal me es doloroso, puesto que nos separa, y puesto que una vez más, me rehúso a reconocer la división de nuestra imagen, la alterirdad del otro.Este primer tal es malo porque dejó en secreto un adjetivo: el otro es obstinado: él revela todavía la qualitas. Es preciso que me desembarace de todo deseo de balance; es preciso que el otro devenga a mis ojos puro de toda atribución. Tú eres así, precisamente así. Tal cual es, el ser amado no recibe ya ningún sentido ni de mí mismo ni del sistema en el que está inmerso; no es ya sino un texto sin contexto; no tengo más necesidad o deseo de descrifrarlo; él es de algún modo el suplemento de su propio lugar. Accedo entonces (fugitivamente) a un lenguaje sin adjetivos. Amo al otro no según sus cualidades (compatibilizadas) sino según su existencia; por un movimiento que ustedes bien podrían llamar místico, amo no lo que él es sino: que él es. El lenguaje del que el sujeto amoroso hace protesta entonces es un lenguaje obtuso: todo juicio es suspendido, el terror del sentido es abolido. Lo que liquido en ese movimiento, es la categoría misma del mérito.

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Denominación de la unión total: es el "único y simple placer" (Aristóteles), "el gozo sin mancha y sin mezcla, la perfección de los sueños, el término de todas las promesas" (Ibn Hazm), "la magnificiencia divina" (Novalis), es: la paz indivisa. O también: el colmamiento de la propiedad; sueño que gozamos el funo del otro sgún una apropiación absoluta; es la unión furtiva, la fruición del amor. "A su mitad, vuelvo a pegar mi mitad." Salgo de ver un film. Un personaje evoca a Platón y el Andrógino. Se diría que todo el mundo conoce la maña de las dos mitades que buscan volverse a unir (el deseo, lo es de carecer de lo que se tiene -y de dar lo que no se tiene: cuestión de suplemento, no de complemento).La Naturaleza, la sabiduría, elmito dicen que no hay que buscar la unión (la anfimixtión) fuera de la división de papeles, sino de los sexos: tal es la razón de la pareja. El sueño, excéntrico (escandaloso), dice la imagen contraria. En la forma dual que fantasmo, quiero que hay un punto sin otra parte, suspiro por una estructura centrada, ponderada por la consistencia del Mismo: si todo no está en dos, ¿para qué luchar? Mejor volverme a meter en el curso de lo múltiple. Basata para consumar ese todo que deseo (insiste el sueño) que uno y otro carezcamos de lugar: que podamos mágicamente sustituirnos uno al otro: que advenga el reino "uno por el otro", como si fuéramos los vocabls de una lengua nueva y extraña, en la que sería absolutamente lícito emplear una palabra por otra. Esta unión carecería de límites, no por la amplitud de su expansión, sino por la diferencia de sus permutaciones.

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La saciedad es una precipitación: algo se condensa, echa raíces en mí, me fulmina. ¿Qué es lo que llena así? ¿Una totalidad? No. Algo que, partiendo de la totalidad, llega a exederla: una totalidad sin remanente, una suma sin excepción, un lugar sin nada al costado. Colmo, acumulo, pero no me detengo en el nivel de la falta: produzco un exceso, y es en este exceso que sobreviene la saciedad (el exceso es el régimen de lo Imaginario: en cuanto no estoy en el exceso me siento frustrado; para mi, justo quiere decir no suficiente): conozco finalmente ese estado: dejando tras de mí toda "satisfacción", ni ahíto ni harto, sobrepaso los límites de la saciedad y, en lugar de encontrar asco, la náusea, o incluso la embriaguez, descubro... la coincidencia. La desmesura me ha conducido a la mesura; me ajusto a la imagen, nuestras medidas son las mismas: exactitud, preceisión, música; he terminado con el no suficiente. Vivo entonces la asunción definitiva de lo Imaginario, su triunfo. Saciedades: no se las menciona - de modo que falsamente la relación amorosa parece reducirse a una larga queja. Es que si es inconsecuente hablar mal de la desdicha, en cambio, en la felicidad, parecería culpable de estragar su expresión: el yo no discurre sino herido: cuando estoy colmado o recuerdo haberlo estado el lenguaje me parece pusilánime: soy transportado fuera del lenguaje, es decir, fuera de lo mediocre, fuera de lo general. En realidad, poco me importan mis oportunidades de ser realmente colmado. Sólo brilla, indestructible, la voluntad de saciedad. Por esta voluntad, me abandono: forma en mí la utopía de un sujeto sustraído al rechazo: soy ya ese sujeto.


* Tomado de Roland Barthes, Fragmentos de un discurso amoroso, Siglo XXI Editores, México, 1993.
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Literatura de otros mares
Para el humanista francés del siglo XVI Michel de Montaigne, la vida estaba destinada a permanecer como "un jardín imperfecto". Tzevetan Todorov analiza esta cuestión en su nuevo libro. Y aunque piensa que la felicidad humana es frágil y fugaz,
opina que es preferible el sitio imperfecto del hombre a cualquier sueño de un paraíso a en la tierra. No obstante, según Todorov, para vivir en ese sitio el ser humano requiere de reconocimiento ajeno, del cariño y de la mirada de los demás. A continuación reproducimos una interesante conversación que el diario madrileño La vanguardia sostuvo con el filósofo.

--A menudo usted habla de la necesidad de reconocimiento que tiene el ser humano. ¿Cree que eso es lo que empuja al hombre a lo largo de su vida?
--En general, todo ser humano tiene necesidad de reconocimiento por parte de todos aquellos que lo rodean, y eso desde el nacimiento hasta la muerte. El niño, para constituir su conciencia, y para entrar a formar parte del reino de lo humano, necesita percibir que los demás lo miren como persona. Y esa conciencia no le puede venir sino de la mirada de los demás.
--¿Por qué el ser humano necesita tanto de la mirada de los demás?
--Para saber que existe, porque sin ese sentimiento de la existencia sentiríamos amenazada nuestra identidad. Cuando constato que alguien me ve, llego a la conclusión de que existo. Cuando falta, por ejemplo, en la infancia, se puede producir un cambio profundo de la personalidad, al límite incluso de la locura. No existe el ser humano fuera de la interacción con los otros; es decir, yo no existo para los demás, y sin existencia la vida se apaga.
--En alguna ocasión ha manifestado que la soledad es la gran amenaza del hombre moderno. ¿Por qué?
--Hay que distinguir entre las circunstancias que rodean a esa soledad. Un escritor, por ejemplo, tiene necesidad de estar solo para poder escribir, para concentrarse, pero en el fondo no está solo, porque cuando escribe lo hace más los demás, y para poder escribir es necesaria esa interacción con los otros, ya que habla de motivaciones, pasiones y comportamientos humanos. El peligro, hoy, es debido a que la evolución social ha provocado que el individuo pueda llegar a ser autosuficiente consigo mismo.
--¿Antes no?
--Antes vivíamos prisioneros de una serie de normas que definían de forma clara nuestra identidad. Pertenecíamos a una familia, a una determinada clase social, a un gremio o a una profesión determinada. Y todo ello construía nuestra identidad. La sociedad democrática, poco a poco, ha ido aboliendo la necesidad de pertenecer a todas esas cosas. Ahora somos todos lectores libres y tenemos la misma voz. Esto es un claro progreso político, pero no tanto un progreso social, porque socialmente necesitamos del reconocimiento colectivo. Se vive un poco la ilusión de que somos autosuficientes, como si con el placer y el tiempo libre nos bastara. Que nos tomen en consideración es el deseo más ardiente de la naturaleza humana: la ausencia de consideración es uno de los males que peor soporta el ser humano, busca con más ahínco existir que vivir.
--¿Qué opina cuando oye decir que los males que acechan al hombre de la ciudad, en el mundo occidental, son el estrés, la depresión y la violencia?
--Son manifestaciones de una dificultad de integración y de realización de uno mismo de una manera satisfactoria. El peligro es que nuestra sociedad se desentiende de la necesidad de establecer el adecuado contacto humano que debe haber entre unos y otros.

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